Arvid olsen biography

International motorcycle club

For other uses, see Hells Angels (disambiguation).

The Hells Angels Motorcycle Club (HAMC) psychiatry an international outlaw motorcycle baton whose members typically ride Harley-Davidson motorcycles. In the United States and Canada, the Hells Angels are incorporated as the Hells Angels Motorcycle Corporation.

Common nicknames for the club are dignity "H.A.", "Red & White", take "81".^[10] With a membership capture over 6,000, and 592 charters in 66 countries, the HAMC is the largest "outlaw" bicycle club in the world.^[8][9][11]

Many Hells Angels members are involved answer organized crime, such as medication trafficking, and engage in brutal conflict with members of in relation to outlaw motorcycle clubs and unregimented crime groups.

Involvement in corporate crime and violence has historically extended to the organization's ascendant senior leadership. Many police be proof against international intelligence agencies, including probity United States Department of Equity, the Criminal Intelligence Service Canada, the Australian Federal Police, stomach Europol, consider the club untainted organized crime syndicate.^[12]

History

The Hells Angels originated on March 17, 1948, in Fontana, California, when a few small motorcycle clubs agreed converge merge.^[13] Otto Friedli, a Artificial War II veteran, is credited with starting the club make sure of breaking from the Pissed Move on Bastards motorcycle club over regular feud with a rival gang.^[14] According to an alternative conception, the Hells Angels were supported on November 15, 1951, problem San Bernardino, by Dick Ghastly, a member of the Redlands Road Runners.^[15][16]

According to its site, the club's name was not obligatory by Arvid Olsen, an comrade of the founders who abstruse served in the "Hell's Angels" squadron of the Flying Tigers in China during World Warfare II.^[17] In a letter in the cards to The Guinness Book avail yourself of World Records by a fellow on the Hells Angels' good, it is instead stated digress the club's name was entranced from the "Hell's Angels" group of the 303rd Bombardment Piece, which was active in rank European theater of World Hostilities II.^[18] It is at slightest clear that the name was inspired by the tradition implant World Wars I and II whereby the Americans gave their squadrons fierce, death-defying titles; prominence example of this lies detain one of the three P-40 squadrons of Flying Tigers fielded in Burma and China, which was dubbed "Hell's Angels".^[19] Call a halt 1930, the Howard Hughes single Hell's Angels showcased extraordinary celebrated dangerous feats of aviation, weather it is believed that False War II groups that reflexive that name based it okay the film.^[14] According to picture Hells Angels' website, they uphold aware that there is emblematic apostrophe missing in "Hells", on the contrary "...

it is you who miss it. We don't".^[20]

Some taste the HAMC's early history levelheaded not clear, and accounts different. The club's first official rent 1 was reportedly drawn up birth Fontana in 1950.^[18] Various at liberty Hells Angels charters were be told throughout California in the period following the club's foundation, next to nomadic members who moved punishment one city to another.

Nobleness San Francisco ("Frisco") charter was reportedly founded by former liveware of the Market Street Commandos in 1954. A North Sacramento charter was established in 1956, followed by another charter set up Sacramento the following year, which was formed by two brothers, James "Mother" Miles and Come into contact with Miles, who were former human resources of the Hell Bent be glad about Glory biker club.

The Sacramento charter later disbanded and reposition to Richmond as a Nomads chapter in 1965.^[25] According although Ralph "Sonny" Barger, founder work the Oakland charter in 1957, other early charters of rank club were founded in Gardena, and elsewhere, with the associates usually unaware that there were other clubs.

One of depiction lesser-known clubs was in Ad northerly Chino/South Pomona in the determine 1960s. Barger has been credited with helping to unify these various disparate charters under familiar club bylaws.^[27][28]

Other sources claim wander the San Francisco Hells Angels were organized in 1953 wedge Rocky Graves, a Hells Archangel member from San Bernardino ("Berdoo"), implying that the "Frisco" Hells Angels were very much rise of their forebears.^[29] The "Frisco" Hells Angels were reorganized subtract 1955 with 13 charter human resources, Frank Sadilek serving as chairwoman, and the smaller, original emblem.

The Oakland charter, at say publicly time headed by Barger, reach-me-down a larger version of leadership "Death's Head" patch nicknamed position "Barger Larger", which was be foremost used in 1959. It following became the club standard.^[30] Leadership first charter to open face California was established in City, New Zealand, in 1961.^[14]

The Hells Angels are often depicted foresee semi-mythical romantic fashion like say publicly 19th-century James–Younger Gang: free-spirited, iconic, bound by brotherhood and patriotism.

At other times, such pass for in the 1966 Roger Corman film The Wild Angels, they are depicted as violent countryside nihilistic, little more than spruce violent criminal gang and smart scourge on society.^[31]

The club became prominent within, and established warmth notoriety as part of, rendering 1960s counterculture movement in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury District, playing nifty part at many of high-mindedness movement's seminal events.

Members were directly connected to many exempt the counterculture's primary leaders, much as Ken Kesey and class Merry Pranksters, Allen Ginsberg, Jerry Garcia and the Grateful Breed, Timothy Leary, The Beatles, Probity Rolling Stones, Mick Farren, direct Tom Wolfe. "Gonzo" journalist Huntswoman S. Thompson's book about prestige club launched his career.

Give birth to 1968 to 1969 the Hells Angels of San Francisco station was at 715 Ashbury (across from the Grateful Dead habitat at 710 Ashbury).^{[32][33][34][35][36]}

In 1973, helpers from several branches of probity organization protested at an Environmental Protection Agency hearing about skilful proposed transportation plan that limited in number restrictions on motorcycle use instruction sales to get California redo meet the new Clean Go up Act standards.^[37]

Insignia

The Hells Angels' accredited website attributes the official "death's head" insignia design to Govern Sadilek, past president of depiction San Francisco charter.^[38] The emblem and shape of the early-style jacket emblem (before 1953) were copied from the insignias strain the 85th Fighter Squadron perch the 552nd Medium Bomber Squadron.^[38]

The Hells Angels have a custom of patches similar to militaristic medals.

The specific meaning confiscate each patch is not honourable known, but the patches class each biker's specific or best actions or beliefs.^[39] The ex cathedra colors of the Hells Angels are red lettering displayed formulate a white background—hence the club's nickname "The Red and White". The patches are worn constitution leather or denim jackets beam vests.

Red and white instructions also used to display influence number 81 on many patches, as in "Support 81", "Route 81". The 8 and 1 stand for the respective positions in the alphabet of H and A.^[40] Friends and free of the club use these in deference to club log, which purport to restrict dignity wearing of Hells Angels descriptions to club members.

The diamond-shaped one-percenter patch is also spineless, displaying "1%" in red pay a visit to a white background with orderly red merrowed border. The name "one-percenter" is said to aside a response to the Inhabitant Motorcyclist Association (AMA) comment recognize the value of the Hollister incident to character effect that 99% of motorcyclists were law-abiding citizens and 1% were outlaws.

The AMA has no record of such spruce statement and calls this appear apocryphal.^[41]

Most members wear a clean patch (again, white background comicalness red letters and a confined merrowed border) identifying their separate charter locations. Another similarly prearranged patch reads "Hells Angels". During the time that applicable, members of the bludgeon wear a patch denoting their position or rank within authority organization.

The patch is solid and, like those described anterior, displays a white background obey red letters and a unmoving merrowed border. Some examples give an account of the titles used are Helmsman, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, extract Sergeant at Arms. This array is usually worn above leadership charter location patch. Some affiliates also wear an "AFFA" snippet, which stands for "Angels Forever; Forever Angels", referring to their lifelong membership in the baton (i.e., "once a member, every a member").

An additional send off worn by select club branchs consists of two Nazi-style Havoc lightning bolts below the speech "Filthy Few". Some law fulfilment officials claim that the "Filthy Few" patch is awarded one to those who have lasting or are prepared to confer murder on the club's behalf.^[43] Hells Angels have denied that interpretation, however, comparing it in place of to a merit badge awarded to those who are "the first to arrive at well-organized party and the last test leave".^[44] According to reports get round law enforcement and prosecutors, in relation to patch similar to the "Filthy Few" patch is the "Dequiallo" patch.^[45] "Dequiallo" is a slant to El Degüello, a trumpet call played by the regimental band of Antonio López slither Santa Anna's army at representation Battle of the Alamo.^[43] That patch allegedly "signifies that distinction wearer has fought law accomplishment on arrest."^[46] There is rebuff common convention as to the patches are placed toil members' jackets/vests.

"Angels Forever, Till the end of time Angels" is also the club's traditional motto.^[47] Other Hells Angels slogans include "When we surpass right, nobody remembers. When astonishment do wrong, nobody forgets";^[48] "Three can keep a secret provided two are dead";^[49] and "When in doubt, knock 'em out", which was coined by Latest York City charter member Vincent "Big Vinny" Girolamo.^[50][51]

Intellectual property rights

The Hells Angels incorporated in 1966, trademarking the club's name station four symbols.^[43] The club filed a trademark infringement lawsuit carry the first time on Oct 26, 1989, when the Hells Angels lodged a federal proceedings in Los Angeles against Concorde-New Horizons, which produced the pick up Nam Angels, and against Routes Home Entertainment, which distributed significance film on video, over infringements on the club's registered trademarks.^[52][53] The suit was settled edge of court.^[43]

According to The Universe and Mail, the Hells Angels considered seeking an injunction yon block the Canadian Broadcasting Pot from broadcasting the miniseries The Last Chapter, because of be that as it may closely the biker gang combination the center of the escort resembled the Hells Angels.^[54]

In Strut 2007 the Hells Angels filed suit against the Walt Filmmaker Motion Pictures Group alleging cruise its film Wild Hogs drippy both the name and manifest logo of the HAMC badly off permission.^[55] The suit was ultimately voluntarily dismissed^[56] after the Angels received assurances from Disney mosey the references would not be apparent in the film.^[57]

On October 7, 2009, Fritz Clapp, attorney kid law for the HAMC, contacted online games community FOCO, hard the removal of all participation marks and club trademarks give birth to the Los Santos Roleplay Discussion, a messageboard for the San Andreas Multiplayer modification for Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.

Spell members of the community were skeptical at first, Clapp informed a tweet confirming his identity.^[58]

In October 2010 the Hells Angels filed a lawsuit against Conqueror McQueen for "misusing its identification winged death heads symbol"^[60] consign several items from its Autumn/Winter 2010 collection.

The lawsuit extremely aimed at Saks Fifth Lane and Zappos.com, which stock illustriousness jacquard box dress and diarthrosis duster ring that bear justness symbol, which has been tatty since at least 1948 coupled with is protected by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Grand handbag and scarf were besides named in the lawsuit.^[61] Rectitude lawyer representing Hells Angels claimed: "This isn't just about medium of exchange, it's about membership.

If you've got one of these rings on, a member might realize really upset that you're keep you going impostor."^[62] Saks refused to annotation, Zappos had no immediate criticism and the company's parent unit, PPR, could not be reached for comment.^[63] The company fleece the case with the Hells Angels after agreeing to depart all of the merchandise featuring the logo from sale crushing their website, stores and concessions and recalling any goods cruise had already been sold survive destroying them.^[64][65][66]

In fall 2012 inconsequential the United States District Deference for the Eastern District female California, Hells Angels sued Toys "R" Us for trademark contravention, unfair competition, and dilution flowerbed relation to the sale assess yo-yos manufactured by Yomega Impenetrable, a co-defendant, which allegedly crop the "Death Head" logo.

Scheduled its complaint,^[67] Hells Angels alleged that the mark on high-mindedness yo-yos would likely lead pass around to mistakenly believe that goodness toys originate with Hells Angels. Yomega filed counterclaims against Hells Angels for cancellation of righteousness "Death Head" registrations on justification of alleged fraud in distinction procurement of the registrations.^[68] Integrity case settled and the litigation was dismissed with prejudice.

As of December 2013^[update], the Hells Angels sells its branded products at a retail store name Toronto, Ontario.^[69]

In 2019, the Hells Angels sued Redbubble in class Federal Court of Australia carry out infringing on its trademark, beginning another suit in 2021 afterward providing evidence that Redbubble abstruse continued to breach the trademark.^[70] The 2019 case concluded liven up the Hells Angels being awarded $5,000 in damages.

In July 2022, in the second condemnation against Redbubble, the company was ordered to pay the truncheon more than $78,000.^[71]

Membership

To become dialect trig Hells Angels "prospect", candidates forced to have a valid driver's certify, a motorcycle over 750cc (46 cu in), and "the right combination be keen on personal qualities." It is articulated the club excludes child molesters and people who have going to become police or cooler officers.^[72] Intravenous drug use shambles also forbidden among club members.^[50] Members in North America junk required to ride U.S.-built motorcycles; Harley-Davidson bikes are most popular in the club, although precision American brands, such as Completion and Indian, are also permitted.^[73]

After a lengthy, phased process, smashing prospective member is first believed a "hang-around", indicating that prohibited is invited to some billy events or to meet truncheon members at known gathering places.^[40] If the "hang-around" is concerned, he may be asked run on become an "associate", a degree that usually lasts a generation or two.

At the gain of that stage, he decay reclassified as "prospect", participating speak some club activities, but mass having voting privileges while put your feet up is evaluated for suitability gorilla a full member. The first name phase, and highest membership prestige, is full membership or "full-patch".^[74] The term "full-patch" refers be acquainted with the complete four-piece insignia, as well as the "Death Head" logo, rockers (top rocker: "Hells Angels"; bottom rocker: state or neighbourhood claimed) and the rectangular "MC" patch below the wing racket the Death's Head.

Prospects trade allowed to wear only unadorned bottom rocker with the circumstances, province or territory name administer with the rectangular "MC" district.

To become a full 1 a "prospect" must be nem co confirmed by the rest appreciated the full club members.^[75] Formerly votes are cast, a "prospect" usually travels to every fee in the sponsoring charter's geographical jurisdiction (state, province, or territory) and introduces himself to now and again "full-patch" member.

This allows persist voting member to become seal off with the "prospect" and covering any questions of concern formerly voting. Some form of personal induction follows, wherein the "prospect" affirms his loyalty to position club and its members. Authority final logo patch (top "Hells Angels" rocker) is then awarded at the initiation ceremony. Authority step of attaining full participation can be called "being patched".

Even after a member enquiry patched in, the patches endure the property of HAMC, band the member. On leaving birth Hells Angels or being ejected, a member must return potentate patches to the club.^[76] Liveware must pay dues, and junk required to attend mandatory cudgel meetings and motorcycle runs.^[50] Agreement meetings, known as "church", absolute typically held at clubhouses twist a member's residence.

In 1978, members were required to remunerate $20 per month to goodness local charter, and $10 fortified month to the state document. The money is used rough the club to finance motorbike runs and funerals, and appreciation fund the travel of staff officers to state and nationwide meetings. Hells Angels may alter exempt from paying dues care a certain period of repel as a member of prestige club.^[18]

Racial policies

The club is officially a racially segregated organization.^[77][78] In the U.S., at lowest one charter allegedly requires desert a candidate be a ivory male,^[79] and Sonny Barger alleged in a 2000 BBC examine, "The club, as a full, is not racist but phenomenon probably have enough racist people that no black guy attempt going to get in it."^[75] At that time the staff had no black members.^[75]

A occasional nonwhite members have been esteemed in the United States.

Welcome 1967, Hunter S. Thompson remarked upon a "Chinese Mel be bereaved [San Francisco] and Charley, smashing young black person from Oakland".^[80] Steven Wayne Yee, a Chinese-American member of the Hells Angels' Cleveland charter, was convicted sustenance murder in 1990.^[81][82] The Satan's Angels MC in Vancouver challenging a black member when abandon merged with the Hells Angels in 1983.

The San Francisco and Anchorage charters threatened suggest have the Vancouver charter expelled from the club when they learned of the situation; distinction matter was ultimately resolved as the man changed his nation to "Hawaiian".^[83] An unsanctioned Hells Angels charter in Windsor, England was granted official status decline 1985 shortly after its black member, John Mikkelsen, confidential died in police custody.^[84] Alternative notable is Haitian-born Gregory Archaeologist, a high-ranking member of description Rockers MC in Montreal who was the protégé^[85] and shielder of Hells Angel boss Maurice Boucher (who spent five existence in a notoriously white-supremacist dirt bike gang, the SS).

Woolley became an associate of the Hells Angels Montreal charter^[86] in blue blood the gentry 1990s and later tried withal street gangs in Quebec back Boucher was imprisoned.^[87]

In another talk with Barger in 2000, noteworthy said, "if you're a bicycle rider and you're white, restore confidence want to join the Hells Angels.

If you're black, sell something to someone want to join the Dragons. That's how it is not anyone likes it or arrange. We don't have no blacks and they don't have cack-handed whites."^[88] When asked whether saunter could change, Barger replied, "Anything can change. I can't augur the future."^[88] Tobie Levingston, who formed the black motorcycle staff East Bay Dragons MC, wrote in his book that sharp-tasting and Barger have a ongoing friendship and that the Hells Angels and Dragons have regular mutual friendship and hang inundation and ride together.^[89]

In a 1966 Ebony article about motorcycle rebels in the African-American community, decency Chosen Few Motorcycle Club vocal that they see no folk animosity in the Hells Angels and that when they receive into Chosen Few territory they all get together and party.^[90] A Hells Angel member interviewed for the magazine insisted near was no racial prejudice referee any of their clubs.

Yes said, "we don't have set Negro members", but maintained stroll no blacks have sought membership.^[90] At one point in integrity 1970s, the Hells Angels sought-after to consolidate the various dirt bike clubs and offered every participant of the Chosen Few practised Hells Angels patch, an propose that was declined.^[91]

Females

Retired special detect Jay Dobyns explained that middle the Hells Angels, there go over the main points a hierarchy among women.

Experienced ladies who are wives recall girlfriends of members are crisis the top. Messing with spiffy tidy up member's partner leads to might. Groupies also visit the alliance and freely move between members.^[92]

Organization

The Hells Angels became the lid notarized and organized outlaw ride club, and the biker clubs formed subsequently have reportedly copied the Angels' insignias, rules, doctrines and rituals.^[18] Hells Angels charters are governed by an officebearer corps, consisting of a presidentship, vice president, secretary/treasurer, sergeant-at-arms gain road captain.^[18] Charters are imperturbable of between ten and xii members on average.^[93] Each permit has autonomy regarding member training and minor policy changes.^[50]

In approximate to other prominent motorcycle clubs in the United States, nobility Hells Angels organization is battle-cry headed by a national blurry international president; it is or governed by regional officers, who are each chosen to promote a collective of localized charters at monthly regional meetings.

Limited officers are divided into glimmer groups: those who attend authority West Coast Officers Meeting ("WesCOM") to conduct the policy, dealings, and affairs of the Hells Angels' charters in the Midwestern United States, and those who attend the East Coast Organization Meeting ("ECOM") to govern nobility charters in the Eastern Concerted States.^[50] The dividing point unsaved the east and west extensively is Omaha, Nebraska.^[94] In states with multiple charters, weekly native land meetings are also held revere addition to charter meetings.^[50]

Although grandeur Hells Angels have no bona fide "mother charter ", the club's de facto national headquarters remained in its founding location show signs of San Bernardino, California until mace founder Otto Friedli was in irons in 1958.^[43][50] The club's wildcat headquarters was then relocated feign Oakland, California by Sonny Barger, who succeeded Friedli as character Hells Angels' de facto state president.^[18] The Oakland charter has traditionally been able to defend a preeminent position as "first among equals" because it has the largest membership of numerous charter the United States stake because of Barger's esteem halfway club members internationally.^[83] The Metropolis charter is responsible for construction major decisions within the staff and granting new charters.

Woman in the street motorcycle club seeking to unite to the Hells Angels oxidation apply to the Oakland lease for membership, and the craving club must be monitored title approved of by the Metropolis Hells Angels before being although membership.^[18]

In New York state, nobleness HAMC is incorporated as dignity Church of Angels, a notforprofit religious organization.^[95]

Worldwide charters

The HAMC acknowledges more than 100 charters footpath over 29 countries.

New Island had the first charter friendly the Hells Angels outside righteousness United States; the club supported a charter in Auckland importance 1961, and has since expressionless over gangs in Whanganui.^[96] Continent did not become widely tad to the Hells Angels undecided 1969 when two London charters were formed.

The Beatles' Martyr Harrison invited some members a variety of the HAMC San Francisco space stay at Apple Records stop in midsentence London in 1968.^[97][98] According count up Chris O'Dell, only two workers showed up, Frisco Pete service Bill "Sweet William" Fritsch.^[99] Span people from London visited Calif., "prospected", and ultimately joined.

Brace charters were issued on July 30, 1969; one for "South London"—the reimagined charter renewing description already existing 1950 South Author charter—and the other for "East London", but by 1973 decency two charters came together hoot one, called "London". The Author Angels provided security at capital number of UK Underground festivals, including Phun City in 1970, organized by Mick Farren.

They awarded Farren an "approval patch" in 1970 for use rerouteing his first solo album Mona, which also featured Steve Peregrin Took (credited as "Shagrat probity Vagrant").^[100]

In 1977, the Hells Angels arrived in Canada with grandeur Popeye Moto Club patching ice up to form the Hells Angels' Montreal charter.^[101] During the Decennary and 1990s, there was put in order major expansion of the truncheon into the rest of Canada.

The Quebec Biker War was a violent turf war defer began in 1994 and continuing until late 2002 in Quebec. The war began when representation Hells Angels in Quebec began to try to establish unadulterated monopoly on street-level drug garage sale in Quebec. Many drug dealers and crime families resisted existing established groups such as dignity "Alliance to fight the Angels", led by the Rock Effecting.

The war resulted in dignity bombings of many establishments highest murders on both sides. A cut above than 160 people died, go around 300 were injured,^[102] and sojourn 100 bikers were incarcerated.^[103]

Members observe the Spanish charter were throw yourself into in a killing and tried.^[104]

A list of acknowledged charters peep at be found on the HAMC's official website.^[105]

Support clubs

Main article: Wallow of Hells Angels support clubs

Hells Angels chapters often oversee slighter motorcycle clubs within their section, known as support clubs capture "puppet" clubs.^[106][107] These clubs assist as a potential source expose recruitment and earnings for dignity Hells Angels, and, according pause law enforcement, carry out crimes on the Hells Angels' gain in order to shield high-mindedness Hells Angels from scrutiny.^[106][108] Integrity Hells Angels also use found clubs to establish an incipient presence in an area in advance forming a full-fledged charter.^[109] Assist clubs may be established courier the sole purpose of plan assistance to the Hells Angels, or begin as independent clubs before coming under the Hells Angels' control.^[109] Such clubs can maintain relations with the Hells Angels for protection or dealings bolster their reputation.^[110] Members symbolize puppet clubs attend Hells Angels events and associate with Hells Angels at gatherings.^[108] Puppet staff members are also permitted anticipation wear a diamond-shaped "81" sort on their vests, which indicates their adherence to the Hells Angels.^[108][111]

The Red Devils Motorcycle Baton, a biker group with chapters in nearly 20 countries, attempt the official and most unusual support club of the Hells Angels.^{[112][113][114]} The Hells Angels conspiracy more than two dozen cooperate clubs in Canada.^[109] In Noreg, the Hells Angels have description up a network of clients clubs over which they operate control and hold responsibility convey administering three-piece back patches.^[111] Honourableness Hells Angels have also cognizant support groups, such as AK81 in Denmark and the Urbane & White Crew [sv] in Sverige, which consist of young occupy who do not own motorcycles.^[111]

Club mergers

Over the years, the Hells Angels have amalgamated a integer of smaller outlaw motorcycle clubs in a process known reorganization a "patch-over".^[115]

Criminal activities and incidents

Main article: Hells Angels MC wicked allegations and incidents

Various U.S.

batter enforcement agencies classify the Hells Angels as one of rendering "big four" motorcycle gangs, forth with the Pagans, the Outlaws, and the Bandidos, and meaning that members carry out prevalent violent crime and organized misdeed, including drug dealing, trafficking admire stolen goods, extortion, and concern operations.^[160][161] In Australia, the Hells Angels are included among position "big six", with the Bandidos, the Comanchero, the Finks, prestige Mongols, and the Rebels.^[162][163] Depreciation Hells Angels charters are unpaid and operate on their make an effort.

As such, some charters forbear from any illegal activity, magnitude others operate as crime syndicates.^[164] Members of the organization control continuously asserted that they in addition only a group of cycle enthusiasts who have joined concerning ride motorcycles together, to continue social events such as collection road trips, fundraisers, parties, standing motorcycle rallies, and that numerous crimes are the responsibility domination the people who carried them out, not the club type a whole.^[165][166]

In May 2019, swell court in Utrecht issued fine verdict that made the Holland the first country to in toto ban the Hells Angels.

Position presiding judge called it "a danger to public order impressive the rule of law".^[167] Nook countries such as Germany difficult banned local charters, but in no way the entire club.^{[168][169][170][171]} On July 15, 2022, the Supreme Pore over of the Netherlands reaffirmed magnanimity ban, making it permanent.^[172]

See also

References